Chapter 1Word-Structure
1. The definition of morpheme
1.1 What is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language?- morpheme
What are words composed of? - Words are formed by morphemes. A word is the smallest unit that stands alone to communicate meaning.
1.2 What are the Chinese equivalents对应词of morpheme? 语素词素-形位
2.1 Morphemes may be classified into free and bound.
Free morphemes, also called content morphemes, may constitute words by themselves. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. So we may say that free morphemes are free roots.
Bound morphemes = Bound root + affixes, known as grammatical morphemes, must appear with at least one other morpheme, either free or bound. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words, e.g. recollection, idealistic, ex-prisoner
2.2 Morphemes may also be classified into roots (or root morphemes) and affixes (or affixational morphemes).
Task:
(1) Read the following words and find the root in each word.
heart, hearten, dishearten, heartless, hearty, heartiness,
sweetheart, heartbroken, kind-hearted, whole-heartedly.
(2) What is your definition of root?
A root is the part of the word-form which remains when all the affixes have been removed.
(3) Is a root necessarily a free morpheme? Why?
2.2.1 Two types of roots
- Free root
In English, many roots are free morphemes, such as black in black, blackboard, blacksmith.
- Bound root
However, there are quite a number of roots which cannot exist on their own and thus belong to the class of bound morphemes. For example, ceive in receive, conceive, perceive, deceive; mit in permit, commit, submit; tain in retain, contain, maintain; cur in recur, occur, incur, etc.
these roots cannot be used to form new words.
2.2.2 Two types of affixes
Affix is a collective term for the type of formative (构词成分) that can be used only when added to another morpheme.
- Inflectional affixes (or inflectional morphemes) serve to express
the following meanings:
(1) plurality: e.g. -s in chairs, pens; -es in boxes, tomatoes;
en in oxen.
繁星伴奏
(2) the genitive case: e.g. ’s in boy’s, children’s.
(3) the verbal endings: for example,
a. -(e)s in words like eats, teaches shows the third person
singular present tense.
b. -ing in words like eating, teaching shows the present
participle or gerund.
c. -(e)d in words like worked, saved shows the past tense or past
participle.
(4) the comparative and superlative degrees:金典歌曲
< -er in words like smaller, harder; -est in words like smallest,
hardest.
-
Derivational affixes (or derivational morphemes)can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.
•(1) Prefixes are affixes before the root, e.g: unjust, rewrite.
As a rule, most prefixes modify the meaning of roots, but not their parts of speech.
task: list some prefixes that can modify the parts of speech.
- en-(em-) as in words like embody, enrich
- be- as in words like befriend, belittle
- a- as in words like asleep, aside • (2) Suffixes are affixes after the root, e.g.: darkness, worker. By the addition of the suffix,
the word is usually changed from one part of
speech into another, e.g. liberation, modernize.
2.3 Relationship between the two classifications of morphemes
罗仲谦肌肉Morpheme
It is the minimal meaningful unit of language. Or it is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.
a) Bound morphemes are morphemes which alone can be used as words .
怒放的生命下载What is an allomorph?
An allomorph is one of the variants of the same morpheme.
语素/形位变体是同一个语素的不同形式。
● A morpheme may take various shapes or forms.
2.4 Morpheme and Word-formation
In word-formation, morphemes are labeled root, stem, base and affix.
Two types of affixes:
Inflectional affixes and Derivational affixes 屈折词缀和派生词缀
⏹ Inflectional affixes function as grammatical markers. 表示词的语法意义的是屈折
词缀。-s ,-es ,ing,-er ,or -(e)d,est
Derivational affixes or derivational morphemes
They can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.
(1) Prefixes are affixes before the root.
<， unjust, rewrite.
As a rule, most prefixes modify the meaning of roots, but not their parts of speech.
(2) Suffixes are affixes after the root
By the addition of the suffix, the word is usually changed from one part of speech into another, e.g. liberation, modernize.
Root, stem, base 词根、词干、词基
A root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed. 词根是所有屈折词缀和派生词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分。
A stem is that part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed. 词干是所有屈折词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分。
A base refers to a form to which affixes of any kind (both derivational and inflectional) can be added. It can be a root or a stem.
⏹ 词基是任何一种词缀都可加在上面的形式。
morpheme free morpheme bound morpheme Bound root inflectional affixes derivational affixes prefixes suffixes
超人不会飞mv⏹词根是所有屈折词缀和派生词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分。
⏹词干是所有屈折词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分。
⏹它与词根有区别，因为它是可以从派生角度进行分析的形式，在上面可以加上
派生词缀。但是词根则不容许做进一步的分析。词基与词干也是不同的，因为派生
词缀和屈折词缀都可以加在词基上，而只有屈折词缀可以加在词干上。
Task: Analyse the word in terms of root, stem and base.
undesirable (n.): 不是词根（可再分解）；是词干（可以加屈折词缀，如名词复数-s），也是词基。
free morpheme (自由形位)
Morpheme: bound root (粘附词根)
(形位) bound morpheme（粘附形位）inflectional affix（屈折词缀）
affix prefix （前缀）
infix （中缀）
（词缀）derivational affix suffix （后缀）
（派生词缀）
2.4.1 The categories of prefixation：
Negative Prefix (un-,non-,in-,im-,il-,ir)
Reversative Prefix (de-,dis-,un-)
Pejorative贬损的Prefix (mal-,mis-,pseudo-)
Gradient Prefix
(arch-,extra-,ultra-,hyper-&hyper-,macroµ-,mini-&mega-,sur-&sub-,over-&out-&under-) Directional and Attitudinal Prefix (anti-, contra-, counter-,pro-)
Locative Prefix (extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-)
Temporal and Sequential Prefix (ex-,fore-,post-,re-)
Number Prefix (multi-&poly-,semi-&hemi-)
Miscellaneous混杂的；各种各样的Prefix (auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-)
2.4.2The categories of suffix:
2.4.2.1Nominalizer (名词化):
De-nominal suffixes (-eer,-er,-or,-ess,-ette,-let,-ling,-dom,-ery,-ry,-hood,-ing,-ism,-ity,-ship) De-verbal suffixes (-er/or,-ant/ent,-al,-ion,-ment,-age,-ing)
De-adjectival suffixes(-ness,-ity,-itas)
2.4.2.2Verbalizer:
De-nominal suffixes(-ate,-fy)
De-adjectival suffixes(-en,-ize, en-, em-)
2.4.2.3Adjectivizer少女时代歌曲
De-nominal suffix (-ful,-less,-ish,-like,-y)
De-verbal suffix (-able, -ive)
2.4.2.4 Adverbializer
De-nominal suffix (-wise,-ward(s))
De-adjectival suffixes(-ly)
2.4.3 Compoinding
Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.
2.4.
3.1 Characteristics
·Phonetic features: the word usually stress in the first element.
·Semantic features: Every compound should express a single idea just as one word. ·Grammatical features: A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective.
2.4.
3.2 Formation of compounding: noun compounds, adjective compounds, verb compounds, through conversion, through backformation
2.4.
3.3 Classfication of compounds:
Endocentric: one or both roots is the ―head‖ of the comound.
Co-ordinate: two head roots; this is a modification structure,
Subordinate:
Exocentric:
Chapter 2 Word formation 构词法
Major word formation process(1-3)
1.Affixation (derivation)词缀法
Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation, for new words created in this way are derived from old forms. According to the positions that affixes occupy in words, affixation falls into two subclasses; prefixation and suffixation.
Prefixation: Prefix do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning. However, present-day English finds an increasing number of class-changing prefixes. e.
g. asleep a (a- + v), encourage V (en- + n), unearth V (un- + n), de-oil V (de- + n), postwar a (post- + n), intercollege a (inter- + n) and others. These make up only an insignificant number in the huge contemporary vocabulary The majority of prefixes are characterized by their non-class-changing nature. Their chief function is to change the meaning of the stems. Suffixation:Suffixes have only a small semantic role; their primary function is to change the grammatical function of stems. They mainly change the word class. Therefore, we shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into four groups.
2.Compounding复合法
Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds. So a compound is a 'lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word' (Quirk et al 1985). Silkworm蚕and hone-ybee蜜蜂are compounds; so are tear gas催泪and easy chair安乐椅. These examples show that compounds can be written solid (silkworm), hyphenated(honey-bee) and
open (tear gas and easy chair) As open compounds are the same in form as free phrases, what is the dividing line between them?
2.1 Characteristics of Compounds
Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects.
1. Phonetic features In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress. In cases of two stresses, the compound has the primary stress on the first element and the secondary
stress, if any, on the second whereas the opposite is true of free phrases, e.g.
Compound Free phrase
a 'hot1house温房, 暖房，干燥室 a hot 'house
a 'black horse a black 'horse
a 'green room a green 'room
But these stress patterns of compounds are not absolute. Sometimes, the primary stress may also fall on the second element as in ash-'blonde 灰银and , bottle- 'green 深绿的as well as in combining-form compounds, socio-linguistic, psycho-analysis. Therefore, this is not always reliable.
2. Semantic features Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word. For instance, a green hand is an 'inexperienced person', not a hand that is green in color; red meat refers to 'beef' or 'lamb' rather than any meat that is red in color; hot dog is by no means a dog that is hot, but a typical American sausage in between two pieces of bread. The meanings of such examples cannot be easily inferred from the two components of the compounds.
Nevertheless, a lot of compounds are transparent, that is the meaning can be inferred from the separate elements of compounds. Consider the following random examples: disaster- related, flower pot, washing machine, dumb show哑剧, scarlet fever 猩红热and many others. But the two elements are inseparable and the change of the element would result in the loss of the original identity.
3. Grammatical features A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective. Bad-mouth used as a verb can take the third person singul
ar -s and the past tense marker -ed, e. g. 'He bad-mouthed me. 苛刻批评' (Bolinger and Sears 1981) Compound nouns show their plural forms by taking inflectional -s at the end, e.g. new-borns, three-year-olds, will-o ' -the-wisps, major generals. 少将Of course, there are exceptions such as brothers-in-law, lookers-on . In spite of this their single grammatical role is apparent.
In adjective-noun compounds, the adjective element cannot take inflectional suffixes, for example: Compound Free phrase
fine art美术finer art美艺术
red tape官样文章reddest tape最红带子
hot line hotter line线路, 航线
3.Conversion转化法
Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class种类to another class. This is a method of turning words of one part of speech to those of a different part of speech. These words are new only in a grammatical sense. Since the words do not change in morphological structure but in function, this process is also known as functional shift. Look at the word round in the
following sentences:
[4a] He was knocked out in the first round.
[ 4b] Round the number off to the nearest tenth.
[4c] The neighbours gathered round our barbecue.
[4d] The moon was bright and round.
[4e] People came from all the country round.
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